Business Valuation of Tesco Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Valuation of Tesco - Research Paper Example The paper discusses reasons resulting in the declining performance of Tesco. In the recession time, when other competitors like Wal-Mart, Sainsbury’s, and Carrefour have been facing severe problems, Tesco has adopted strong strategic plans to cope with the financial crisis. In the years following the financial crisis period, the company has reported a declining profit, despite the fact that profits yielding from its operations were greater, but the consumers’ behavior remained ineffective. Tough competition among competitive companies led by low-profit margin pricing and marketing activities has been observed during 2012-2013. The company has maintained strong policies and strategies to overcome obstacles (Miller, 2005). The analysis of the performance of Tesco shows that the competition has led the company to initiate steps to minimize its costs. It has enabled the company to increase its profit margin when consumers hesitate to spend. On the other hand, an effective a nd innovative platform in the operational side of the business has been observed (Naunheim, 2011).  As the consumer’s behavior model has changed in recent years, this strategy of Tesco has regained the confidence of consumers and has increased its sales volume. The analysis of the five-year financial information (see Table 1) depicts that the company’s stock price has been fluctuating with the changes under economic circumstances (Naunheim, 2011). Tesco’s stock price peaked during 2009-2010, whereas a gradual fall was observed in 2010-2011, but a major decline in stock prices was in 2012-2013 (Dinkhoff, 2009). According to financial data, there has been a major decline in 2012. Amongst competitors in the retailing and grocery merchandising industry, Sainsbury’s stock value has been gradually increased during 2009-2011. By the end of 2011, the company’s stock peaked, and after 2011 a gradual decline in the Sainsbury’s stock prices has been observed (Dinkhoff, 2009). Sainsbury’s market price has not fluctuated like that of Tesco during 2011-2012.  

Wheeler Howard Act. Voices of Freedom by Eric Foner Term Paper

Wheeler Howard Act. Voices of Freedom by Eric Foner - Term Paper Example Making 0.9% of the US population the Indian Americans live in different parts of the country and are estimated to be as many as 2.9Million (as per the census of 2010). Since, the number is not ordinary and the group is a major one therefore the members required a proper set of rules and standards, which had allowed them to live freely and as per their will just like any other American citizen. In this regard, different laws have been passed in the American legislation so far. This paper aims to study the Wheeler Howard Act in reference to four of the primary sources / documents presented in Voices of Freedom by Eric Foner in detail. Background: A law is needed when anything goes wrong or is against any other law or right of any individual, estate, or any other thing. The Wheeler Howard Act generally known as the Indian Reorganization Act of 1938 was a replacement of the old Dawes Act also known as the Indian General Allotment Act of 1887. The Dawes Act worked properly initially howev er later it turned out to be destructive. As a consequence of Dawes Act, the Native Americans land which once calculated in 1887 was totaling to a sum of 138 million acres while by 1934 it reduced enormously to 48 million acres. The consequences were so immense and worst that poverty and major loss of tribal lands of the Native Americans was increasing day by day as the land was being sold to the white people. Two different surveys were conducted in order to know the exact reason for this. One was the Meriam report, while the other one was the Senate systematic investigation both concluded the same results that the previous law was destructing the tribal lands1. The Wheeler Howard Act: The Wheeler Howard Act or the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 terminated and replaced the Dawes Act. The law also imposed limits and restrictions on the sale of the Indian American land. The Secretary of states was also approached and was asked to purchase and reserve more lands for the Native India n Americans. However, many of the Americans have a different perspective regarding the freedom and the allowance of migration of the Non Americans to America to seek freedom2. In the book Voices of Freedom, Eric Foner has highlighted different eras, issues, and revolutions of the American history, freedom and liberation. However, as a part of American freedom he has also talked about the Wheeler Howard Act and demand and ongoing issues of the Americans / Native Americans at that very moment. Since, Foner is one of the finest historian of the political and social history and a specialist on the American Reconstruction period his documents are highly credible and appreciated3. The book is a series of different documents, all representing the American history and freedom. In one of the documents, Foner discussed regarding the history of Native Americans, the issues surrounding them; immigration and the different controversies. Obviously, Foner is very well aware of the Wheeler Howard A ct. He tried to cover the topic in a way that it showed every aspect of the America, its freedom, reconstruction and the major conflicts of Americans. In one letter presented in the book by Foner, a Native American / Indian American writes to his family for how happy he is as he has been provided with land and he can settle anywhere after the Wheeler Howard Act. He was happy that he made the decision of coming to America. He thought of it as freedom and considered America as a free country. He got what he was promised for4. According to a perception it is believed that Foner was not happy with the Wheeler Howard Act as in another article presented in the

Tanzania Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tanzania - Essay Example The local population deserves jobs, zero exposure to environmental degradation, and compensation for the land and resources that AFG among other firms have used in the mining process. The introduction of mining business interfered with fishing and lifestyles given that the government did not have a concrete method that could regulate the conduct of foreign firms in the country. Conversely, the government deserves further involvement if it resolves the incidences of corruption and bureaucracies. The diversification of the economy in Tanzania, achievement of social responsibility initiatives and regulation of foreign firms are some of the needs that require fast and effective decisions. AFG will generate a strategy that is legal in the Tanzanian context because the primary objective is to make a difference in the community but through the proper incorporation of relevant government authorities. The partnerships will realize a sustainable and all-inclusive program. Handling social and e cological problems for the community will reduce wrangles and initiate a platform for application of entrepreneurial and innovative skills of Tanzanians. The local communities will revive their economic capacity against a backdrop of proper ecological systems. The government and local authorities will become more accountable and launch a safe environment for foreign investment. The responsibility of the government will reduce the AFG’s burden in attaining sustainable development goals for the companies and the locals.

Wheeler Howard Act. Voices of Freedom by Eric Foner Term Paper

Wheeler Howard Act. Voices of Freedom by Eric Foner - Term Paper Example Making 0.9% of the US population the Indian Americans live in different parts of the country and are estimated to be as many as 2.9Million (as per the census of 2010). Since, the number is not ordinary and the group is a major one therefore the members required a proper set of rules and standards, which had allowed them to live freely and as per their will just like any other American citizen. In this regard, different laws have been passed in the American legislation so far. This paper aims to study the Wheeler Howard Act in reference to four of the primary sources / documents presented in Voices of Freedom by Eric Foner in detail. Background: A law is needed when anything goes wrong or is against any other law or right of any individual, estate, or any other thing. The Wheeler Howard Act generally known as the Indian Reorganization Act of 1938 was a replacement of the old Dawes Act also known as the Indian General Allotment Act of 1887. The Dawes Act worked properly initially howev er later it turned out to be destructive. As a consequence of Dawes Act, the Native Americans land which once calculated in 1887 was totaling to a sum of 138 million acres while by 1934 it reduced enormously to 48 million acres. The consequences were so immense and worst that poverty and major loss of tribal lands of the Native Americans was increasing day by day as the land was being sold to the white people. Two different surveys were conducted in order to know the exact reason for this. One was the Meriam report, while the other one was the Senate systematic investigation both concluded the same results that the previous law was destructing the tribal lands1. The Wheeler Howard Act: The Wheeler Howard Act or the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 terminated and replaced the Dawes Act. The law also imposed limits and restrictions on the sale of the Indian American land. The Secretary of states was also approached and was asked to purchase and reserve more lands for the Native India n Americans. However, many of the Americans have a different perspective regarding the freedom and the allowance of migration of the Non Americans to America to seek freedom2. In the book Voices of Freedom, Eric Foner has highlighted different eras, issues, and revolutions of the American history, freedom and liberation. However, as a part of American freedom he has also talked about the Wheeler Howard Act and demand and ongoing issues of the Americans / Native Americans at that very moment. Since, Foner is one of the finest historian of the political and social history and a specialist on the American Reconstruction period his documents are highly credible and appreciated3. The book is a series of different documents, all representing the American history and freedom. In one of the documents, Foner discussed regarding the history of Native Americans, the issues surrounding them; immigration and the different controversies. Obviously, Foner is very well aware of the Wheeler Howard A ct. He tried to cover the topic in a way that it showed every aspect of the America, its freedom, reconstruction and the major conflicts of Americans. In one letter presented in the book by Foner, a Native American / Indian American writes to his family for how happy he is as he has been provided with land and he can settle anywhere after the Wheeler Howard Act. He was happy that he made the decision of coming to America. He thought of it as freedom and considered America as a free country. He got what he was promised for4. According to a perception it is believed that Foner was not happy with the Wheeler Howard Act as in another article presented in the

Case about International Commercial Arbitration Essay

Case about International Commercial Arbitration - Essay Example In the case of CalCo and IndCo, while disputes arose between them, CalCo filed a request for arbitration with ICC claiming various defaults and damages due to breaching contracts before attempting to resolve disputes inter alia. When IndCo filed suit in Mumbai High Court seeking inter alia with CalCo before the arbitration proceeding to be done and argued the contract was invalid or incapable of being performed the claimant filed a claim with California Federal Court to compel arbitration proceedings. IndCo responded saying that American court should wait until Mumbai court decides on the case and the contract has violated US antitrust laws. IndCo was still on the argument that the case is not arbitrable. According to the ‘arbitrational clause’ that both IndCo and CalCo agreed upon, each party has to appoint one arbitrator and the third one shall be appointed by Indian Chamber of Commerce, but this was not considered by ICC. Even though ICC tribunal decided that the case has close connection with Indian law and hence the contract is valid and awarded the claimant $ 2,000,000, the primary claims of IndCo that it is not arbitrable as according to their clause that an arbitration can be done only when both parties are unable to solve by negotiation, and secondly the appointment of arbitrators is not according to what both parties had agreed upon can be considered to be valid but this was not so considered by ICC. According to Article 10 of ICC (2008), â€Å"In the absence of such a joint nomination and where all parties are unable to agree to a method for the constitution of the Arbitral Tribunal, the Court may appoint each member of the Arbitral Tribunal and shall designate one of them to act as chairman. In such case, the Court shall be at liberty to choose any person it regards as suitable to act as arbitrator, applying Article 9 when it considers this appropriate† (p. 9).

Roles, responsibilities and relationships in lifelong learning Essay Example for Free

Roles, responsibilities and relationships in lifelong learning Essay Within your role and responsibility as a member of teaching staff you will be expected to follow what is referred to as a Code of Professional Practice (2008). This outlines the key aspects of teaching legislation and the regulatory requirements. It is your duty to maintain professional integrity and uphold the reputation of the professional institute. Identifying the needs of both the institute and of the learners is fundamental. Your scheme of work will demonstrate the integrity and reputation of the institute you represent, whilst also facilitating the needs of the learners. Therefore, it is your responsibility as a member of our teaching staff to meet the professional requirements valued by the institute, and to be accountable for the scheme of work that you teach to the learners. It is your responsibility to behave in a professional manner that does not damage the reputation of the institute. Utilising your Continuing Professional Development (CPD) programme, it is also your responsibility to keep up to date with any new developments within your specialist subject (Specific Legislation), and new teaching practises via the IFL (Generic Legislation). Some key aspects of generic legislation are: Code of Professional Practice (2008) this code was developed by the Institute for Learning (IfL) and covers aspects of: †¢ professional integrity †¢ respect †¢ reasonable care †¢ professional practice †¢ disclosure †¢ responsibility. Children Act (2004) Every Child Matters provided the legal requirements for five key aspects: †¢ be healthy †¢ stay safe †¢ enjoy and achieve †¢ make a positive contribution †¢ achieve economic well-being. Equality act (2010) This brings disability, sex, race and other grounds for discrimination into one legislation. It covers nine key aspects: †¢ age †¢ disability †¢ gender †¢ gender identity †¢ race †¢ religion and belief †¢ sexual orientation †¢ marriage and civil partnership †¢ maternity and pregnancy. Equality in general means that everyone is treated equally and fairly this has been underpinned with appropriate legislation which ensures that this happens both for the teacher and in the learning environment. Diversity takes this all one step further by ensuring that you value the differences between individuals. For example you may have a mixed group of students with differing levels of ability or experience who are aiming to achieve the same qualification but at a different level, you could set different activities or targets for them in order to gain the qualification. The Equality Act 2010 provides rights for people not to be directly discriminated against or harassed because they have an association with a disabled person or are perceived to be disabled. Each learner is an individual who should be treated as an equal and with respect regardless of gender, marital status, sexual orientation, disability, race, nationality, age, religion or circumstance. Within the learning environment there should be codes of practice which ensure staff are aware of the law and how to implement it into their job roles. The laws relating to equal opportunities can be developed into an inclusive strategy as shown by Kandola and Fullerton, Equal OpportunitiesDiversity and Inclusion Concentrates on removing discriminationMaximises learner potential Can be an issue for disadvantaged groupsIs relevant to all learners Relies on positive action by manager and the organisation as a wholeRelies on implementing policies and practices in contest Equality is about the rights of the students to have access to and participate and attend within their chosen learning environment. Inclusive learning is about involving all students, treating them equally and fairly. Some students could feel excluded during the session if their particular needs were not met. Therefore through initial assessment or the induction process any needs could be identified. As a teacher you should try to promote a positive culture of equality of opportunity within the sessions whereby all students can attend, participate and feel safe and valued. My roles and responsibilities in lifelong learning are primarily to have teaching and learning strategies which are appropriate to your specialist area. The first time you meet your learners they will subconsciously make assumptions about you, and it is through your behaviour, verbal (and non-verbal) communication, i. e. body language, that you will correct these assumptions. It is important that you do not make any judgements or assumptions. You must remember to be aware of your gestures, facial expressions etc, as your learners will pick up on these characteristics. Communication is key and most importantly, it is your personality and passion for your subject that will inspire your learners. As learners enter in to the classroom they will look at their surroundings, at the teacher and at each other. To ensure this has a positive effect on the learner you should: †¢Be on time †¢Smile †¢Be welcoming †¢Look clean and presentable †¢Be prepared †¢Look calm and organised and confident †¢Ensure the room is prepared for the learners †¢Friendly introductions. The teaching and learning cycle is so called as it can begin at any stage and keep on going. The role of a teacher will usually follow, †¢Identifying needs – finding out what your organisations, your own and potential students needs are, carrying out initial assessments and agreeing individual learning plans †¢Planning learning – preparing a scheme of work, session plans and teaching and learning materials to ensure you cover the requirements of the syllabus †¢Facilitating learning – teaching and facilitating learning using a variety of approaches †¢Assessing learning – checking your students have gained the necessary skills and knowledge †¢Quality assurance and evaluation obtaining feedback from others, evaluating yourself and the programme in order to make improvements for the future. Students need to know why it is important for them to learn, what they are going to learn and how they will do this. One way to make sure your learners have a positive learning experience is to analyse how learners learn. A teacher who understands what helps a learner learn is a better teacher as they recognise the differences are prepared to alter their teaching to suit those differences this is called differentiation. Kolb proposed a four stage experiential learning cycle by which people understand their experiences and as a result modify their behaviour. Honey and Mumford based their analysis on how people learn on Kolb’s learning cycle. They advocate that people either learn best by either doing something (activist), by thinking back on something (reflector), by investigating ideas and concepts (theorist) or by finding relevance or association (pragmatist). Students should be motivated to learn as their keenness to learn will affect their attention and learning ability. Maslow introduced a Hierarchy of needs in 1954, he felt that objects should be removed that prevent a person from achieving their goals. He argued that there are five needs which represent different levels of motivation which must be met. When students satisfy their needs at one level they should be able to progress to the next. To help student’s motivation you should ensure that the learning environment you create meets your students first level needs. You should try to have a purposeful learning environment where your students feel safe, secure, confident and valued. Teaching and learning strategies will vary according to what you want to get out of the session, the time allowed and what materials and resources are available. In order to ensure that you are meeting individual’s needs you will have to understand learning strategies. These are visual, auditory and kinaesthetic (VAK) learning styles, designed by Honey and Mumford, and based on a theory first established by David Kolb. Honey and Mumford designed a Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) which helps identify learning needs. Examples of Visual learning techniques, use cards, posters, prompt sheets, display tasks on boards, supplement verbal exposition with pictures and diagrams etc. Auditory learning techniques, talk through ideas, ask questions and listen to learners. Kinaesthetic learning techniques, use breaks to get learners moving, locate different activities in different parts of the room, use role play or practical activities etc. You may encounter learners that have a higher sensitivity to kinaesthetic learning, than either visual or auditory. The LSQ is recommended if you are to successfully identify the learning needs of your students, and design a scheme of work that differentiates each individual effectively. Within the learning environment it is important to promote appropriate behaviour and respect for others. Setting ground rules is a highly effective method. If you include everyone from the beginning in setting the ground rules (via an icebreaker) they will feel more involved and will be more likely to adhere to them. For example, if you simply told your learners how to behave they may oppose it. If however you initiate an open discussion, your conclusive material will be more effective as the learners will take ownership of the rules they have set. At the forefront of every session should be a beginning, a middle and an end, this structure will ensure that you have an organised approach to teaching and learning. This will help to organise the learners and also help with classroom atmosphere. An initial or diagnostic assessment is a formal way of ascertaining you student’s prior skills or knowledge of the subject to be taken and whether they have any specific needs. Diagnostic tests can also be taken to diagnose information with regards to literacy, language and computer skills. The information gained from these can help to plan sessions to meet any individual needs or to arrange further training or support if necessary. Initial assessment will allow for, †¢Differentiation and individual requirements to be met †¢Ensure students are on the right programme level †¢Ensure the student knows what is expected of them †¢Identify an appropriate pace at which each student will progress. †¢Identify any information which needs to be shared with colleagues †¢Identify additional support needs †¢Identify learning styles †¢Identify transferable skills The results can help with individual learning plans (ILP’s) or action plans with your students, ensuring they are on the right level. Within the learning environment you will have professional boundaries within which to work and it is important not to overstep these by becoming too personal with your students. Boundaries are about knowing where your role as a teacher stops and working effectively within the limits of that role. You need to be in control, fair and ethical with all your students and not show any favouritism towards any particular students, for example by giving one student more support than the others. You may not want to take your break with students or join their social networking sites as you could overstep the mark into being a friend rather than a teacher. Boundaries could also be constraints of your teaching job, for example, the amount of paperwork you need to complete or lack of funding or resources. Other professionals with whom you may need to liaise with are other professionals. These could be other teachers, support workers, administration staff etc. You may also need to liaise with other people such as parents, guardians, inspectors and visitors. You should always remain professional when in contact with others and not overstep the boundary of your role. When you attend meetings or professional events you must act professionally at all times. Some students may have needs, barriers or challenges to learning that may affect their attendance or achievements. Knowing the boundaries of the teacher’s role is essential to an effective learning environment. The interests of the learner is most important and as a teacher we would like to help but are we really the most effective person for the learner to consult. The Behaviour Code 3 of the IfL Code of Professional Practice states: â€Å"Members shall take reasonable care to ensure the safety and welfare of learners and comply with relevant statutory provisions to support their wellbeing and development. † Your students may trust you and tell you something confidential, however you may need to pass this information on to more experienced people, particularly if your student is vulnerable and or in need of expert help. You may encounter students with varying degrees of needs, therefore you should remain impartial but sensitive. Although you may think you can deal with some of these needs it may be better to seek help or advice or refer your student to someone who can help. You should always refer your students to an appropriate specialist or agency if you can’t deal with their needs. Never feel you have to solve your student’s problems yourself and do not get personally involved. You could find out what is available internally within the organisation or where you can refer them externally. Records must be maintained, not only to support the teaching and learning process but also for inspectors, auditor’s verifiers and external quality assurers. The information contained in records helps to measure learning and the effectiveness and appropriateness of the programme overall. Information such as attendance, progress or achievement could be shared with colleagues. If accurate records are not maintained your student’s progress could become unstructured and their achievements may not be documented. Records must be up to date, accurate and legible. Records can be useful for your organisation for accidents, appeals, equal opportunities and funding purposes. Records should be kept confidential and secure at you organisation. The Data Protection Act 2003 is mandatory for all organisations that hold data. As a teacher you must work within the boundaries of the law and professional values. There are many laws, directives and professional ethics which are updated often. The main Acts and rules which we should refer to are, Health and Safety at work Act 1974 – which states that everyone has a responsibility for the safety of themselves and others. Therefore rules must be followed and safe practices adhered to. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 – this legislation seeks to prevent unsafe practices and minimise risk, e. g fire and emergency procedures, first aid at work and safe handling practices. Risk Assessment – All activities have an element of risk, it is the teacher’s responsibility to assess the level of the risk and establish practices to minimise risk and record such activities. Child Protection Guidelines – Eg Crb checks (criminal record bureau). Keeping records is a fundamental part of the teacher’s role, this can be kept on paper or electronically. The documents are required for, auditing purposes, information gathering, Quality assurance systems, health and safety management and financial accountability. Although paperwork is time consuming it must be completed regularly and accurately. Other departments may need to refer to your paperwork, claim funding or allocate appropriate support for learners. Communication is the key to encouraging student motivation and respect, managing behaviour and disruption and becoming a successful teacher. It should always be appropriate and effective and to the level of your students. If there is a disruption you need to handle this professionally to minimise any effect it may have on teaching and learning. This behaviour must be addressed immediately and not ignored. Good behaviour and motivation can be maintained by keeping sessions active and teaching your subject in an interesting and challenging way. Behaviour patterns could highlight the need for additional support as disruption could be a way of asking for help. You should lead by example and always be polite, show respect and say please and thank you, this will help encourage this respectful behaviour in your students. Within the learning environment you should also promote respect between students by encouraging trust, honesty, politeness and consideration.

Do New Wars Pose Difficult Challenges Politics Essay

Do New Wars Pose Difficult Challenges Politics Essay Civil wars in todays modern world have become increasingly described as new wars ever since the end of the Cold War era due to a perceived change in the format of warfare and the emergence of war economies as central to internal skirmishes. Some scholars argue this evolution in warfare and intrastate conflict requires adjustments and changes to the post conflict reconstruction process due to new challenges new wars creates in comparison to the old wars of the past. This essay argues that there is in fact little evolution in warfare since the end of the Cold War and in fact many of the characteristics of the so-called new wars are in fact present in conflicts in the past. It is for this reason that new wars do not pose more difficult challenges any more than the already complicated problems associated with post conflict reconstruction; although some changes are necessary to adjust the course of development, it is in fact the growth and advancement of media and the communications secto rs that have led to an increased focus on civil wars that has pushed them into the public arena and granted them a new status. The first part of this essay will analyse the new wars thesis posited by Kaldor and outline the characteristics attributed to new wars; this will be followed by the convincing criticisms by many academics that argue new wars are not in fact new and assists the final section of the essay that discusses the post conflict reconstruction process and argues contemporary conflict does not post a more difficult challenge to the post conflict reconstruction process anymore than old wars do. The concept of new wars was first written about in detail by Mary Kaldor at the end of the 1990s, as she attempted to define the characteristics of low-intensity conflicts and distinguish them from traditional state versus state conflicts of the past. Kaldor argues that towards the end of the 20th Century, in particular in the post-Cold War order, a new form of organized violence has emerged, with blurred distinctions between war, organized crime and large-scale human rights violations (2006, pp.1-2). This thesis has gained considerable academic support as scholars notice the trend in the decrease of interstate wars and the increase in violence within states (Holsti, 1996, p.40). New wars are characterised as criminal, depoliticized, private and even predatory in their nature, whilst the old wars of the past were ideological, political and noble (Kalyvas, 2006, p.100). Kaldor thus believes there has been a progression in the nature of warfare and conflict since the Cold War as intern al conflicts become the norm and interstate battles become far less common. Kaldor argues that New wars can be contrasted with earlier wars in terms of their goals, the methods of warfare and how they are financed (2006, p.7); these differences will be outlined in the following section to explain the new features of new wars. The goals of new wars are based on identity politics, especially ethnic identity, rather than ideological differences or geo-political ambitions, and often occur due to the erosion of state autonomy and state failure (Kaldor, 2006, pp.5-7). Groups will claim control of the state or certain areas of the state in the name of ethnicity, religion or tribe (Kaldor, 2005, p.212). The Bosnian conflict during the 1990s is often depicted as the archetypal example of a new war as it displays this identity conflict clearly (Kaldor, 2006, p.33). Due to its ethnic diversity of Muslims, Serbs and Croats (as well as several other ethnic identities), it was no surprise that conflict arose between the groupings as the Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats set about ethnic cleansing in an attempt to establish ethnically homogenous territories (Kaldor, 2006, pp.34-5). Furthermore, the attrition of state power means the monopoly over violence is severely limited, which leads to widespread skirmishes and conf licts as groups compete to fill the vacuum created through state collapse (Newman, 2004, p.175). The warring parties in the Bosnian war described themselves as states and made use of the former state apparatus in order to finance, resource and run their campaigns (Kaldor, 2005, p.214). Globalisation has resulted in a cleavage between rich and poor that results in conflict and structural violence (Berdal, 2003, p.479) and also a cleavage between cosmopolitanism and the politics of particularist identities (Kaldor, 2006, p.7). There is a growing them and us divide as identity politics play a more dominant role in how individuals see themselves to each other. This of course increases the inevitability and the probability of conflict among groups of differing identities The form of combat has also changed as guerrilla and counter-insurgency tactics become the norm (Kaldor, 2006, p.8), as the nature of conflict adapts a distinctively politically chaotic and military atrocious character (Snow, 1996, p.105). In the past, guerrilla warfare has aimed to capture hearts and minds of civilians and the population; however, the new warfare uses counterinsurgency methods of destabilisation, aiming to create fear and hatred amongst civilians instead, using this to gain support or at least prevent citizens from disobeying orders (Kalyvas, 2001, p.109). New wars appear to lack military order or discipline (Angstrom, 2005, p.8) which often leads to extreme violence and barbarism, directed in particular at civilians as a deliberate strategy (Mello, 2010, p.299). This strategy of civilian targeting rests in the aim to control populations, inducing destabilization and terror in an attempt to remove those of a different identity through violent and barbaric killings a s well as techniques of intimidation (Kaldor, 2006, p.9). The genocide in Rwanda or the random atrocities committed against civilians in Sarajevo highlight this dark side of new war (Snow, 1996, p.105), and in situations such as Bosnia, Somalia, Rwanda and Liberia, the military objective was the systematic murder and terrorizing of civilian populations (Snow, 1996, p.ix). Civilian casualties and forced displacement has increased in proportion to all causalities in conflict since the 1990s, highlighting this deliberative civilian targeting, further assisted by a blurring of boundaries between civilians and combatants as public authority breaks down as part of state failure (Newman, 2004, p.175). The final feature that distinguishes new wars from old wars is the form of financing that occurs; war economies of the past focused on using resources to defeat the enemy (Broodryk, 2010, p.11), whilst the new wars utilise looting, criminal networks, diasporic support and taxation of humanitarian aid to provide resources for their conflict (Kaldor, 2005, p.216). The simplest form of financing the war effort is through looting, robbery, extortion and hostage-taking and is seen in a number of contemporary wars (Kaldor, 2006, p.108). However, some war economies utilise networks of legal and illegal trade, arms and drug trafficking, corrupt governments and supportive diasporas that influence the outbreak and perpetuation of violent conflicts (Mello, 2010, p.300). The new war economies involve the fragmentation of the state as it cannot monopolise production and employment in order to fund their war cause (Broodryk, 2010, p.11). Resources are instead traded outside of the country to private companies lacking any interest in the conflict, only aiming to profit on the internal disruption (Broodryk, 2010, p.11). Kofi Annan highlights the economic struggle as central to internal conflicts: The pursuit of diamonds, drugs, timber, concessions and other valuable commodities drives todays internal wars. In some countries the capacity of the State to extract resources from society and to allocate patronage is the prize to be fought over (Annan, 1999, emphasis in original). This creates a globalized war economy in which rivalry between criminal groups occurs over resources or illegal commercial activities (Newman, 2004, p.176). The process of resource capture thus means there is no real desire of victory as groups aim to maintain resource profitability and the power they capture (Newman, 2004, p.176) the state of war is preferred to peace as it provides a cover for illegal economic activities by warlords and non-state actors (Melander et al., 2009, p.511) However, there are a number of academics that criticise Kaldors new wars thesis, arguing that many of the new features of new wars can be found in earlier wars, and that the differences between old and new wars are not as dichotomous as made out and are often exaggerated (Newman, 2004, p.173; Mello, 2010, p.305). This essay agrees with this to an extent a number of the features of new wars that Kaldor outlines in her argument are also present in wars of the past and suggest there is little new about modern warfare in internal conflict situations, as will be outlined in the following section. In terms of empirical evidence for new wars, Newman accepts that civil war have been more frequent than interstate war, but argues that both forms of conflict have decreased since the mid-1990s, with the exception of a spike in intrastate conflict in the early 1990s (2004, p.180). This, as Newman believes, shows there has not been an evolution of new wars in the post-Cold War period, and infact, the probability of country being in conflict is not similar to that at the end of the 1950s (Newman, 2004, p.180). In addition, Melander et al. argue battle severity (the number of deaths in battle) has declined in the post-Cold War era, whilst violence against civilians in civil conflict has also decreased (2009, p.507). Kalyvas explores the features of the new war convention, contrasting them to those of old wars, and concludes there are probably more similarities than differences, and that the new wars thesis is flawed in a number of ways. Firstly, he takes the argument that ideological concerns were the motivations of old wars, claiming that in fact, many wars in the past have involved high levels of looting (such as the Russian and Chinese Revolutions) and that many combatants actually made decisions to fight based on local considerations (Kalyvas, 2001, pp.106-7). Many soldiers are usually stimulated due to group pressures such as comradeship, respect and network ties such as family or friendship ties (Kalyvas, 2001, p.108). This can be seen in Irish Revolution and Civil War, where often the ideology at the centre of the war was rarely discussed amongst combatants and the conflict was based instead on family factions and old feuds (Hart, 1999, pp.264-266). Moreover, the depiction of new wars as lacking any ideological movement can be challenged; many rebel forces of contemporary civil wars have been stigmatised as missing any ideological motivations for combat, but in fact many hold an in-depth understanding of their own participation from a political perspective, as shown in Sierra Leone (Kalyvas, 2001, p.104). The portrayal of contemporary warfare existing through a move from chivalrous fighting to that of barbarity by militia and warlords is unfounded (Newman, 2004, p.181); the use of gratuitous violence can be found in old civil wars such in America, Russia and Spain, whilst the practice of child abduction to create child soldiers may be associated with contemporary Africa, but was common in conflicts in Afghanistan (during the Soviet invasion), Peru, Guatemala and the China (Kalyvas, 2001, pp.114-5). The horrific violence and barbarism portrayed in Kaldors new war thesis is also visible in past wars; the deliberate targeting of civilians can be seen in the Mexican Revolution at the start of the 20th Century, whilst World War II represents perhaps the most widespread cases of atrocities in the form of the Holocaust, the German advance into the Soviet Union (with huge civilian displacement) and the Russian advance on Berlin (with numerous cases of rape or sexual brutality) (Newman, 2004, pp.182-3). It is for this reason that Madame de Staà «l remarks that all civil wars are more of less similar in their atrocity, in the upheaval in which they throw men and in the influence they give to violent and tyrannical passions (cited in Kalyvas, 2001, pp.114-5). It is also possible to argue that modern intrastate conflicts do not utilise senseless violence, and that actually the portrayal of violence is defined by culture those in the West find the use machete as more barbaric than mass killings through bombings (Kalyvas, 2001, p.115) who is it to say which is the more atrocious and inhumane? Furthermore, Kaldor contends the violence rebel and militia movements use is not as gratuitous as made out, and in fact it is often strategic and selective Kalyvas argues the Algeria massacres, or the tactics used by RENAMO in Mozambique were part of larger strategies, whilst the forced amputation of womens hands in Sierra Leone can be seen as calculated to instil fear (2001, pp.115- 6). This is not to deny the acts as barbaric, but it certainly weakens the depiction of the violence as undisciplined and random. A case study that suggests new wars are not in fact new can be found in the Congo civil war during the 1960s; Newman argues this conflict closely follows the new wars model and identifies with several characteristics of Kaldors thesis (2004, p.184). The conflict arose after Belgium withdrew from Congo in June 1960, resulting in a political crisis as the centralised government broke down and disorder erupted. The Katanga province, rich in minerals, declared independence from the Congolese state after receiving support from the Belgian mining companies who were protecting their interests and promoting secession in the background (Newman, 2004, p.184). Conflict and struggles against the new leadership of the Republic of Congo was motivated primarily by material aggrandizement, particularly amongst militias and private mercenaries; at the same time, ethnic and religious differences stimulated the violence further, with some fighting orientated around clear political agendas (such as the unitary state against Katangan secession), whilst most fighting revolved around the interests of warlords and local factions (Newman, 2004, p.184). State failure and the breakdown of authority led to social disorder and the emergence of a war economy as mercenaries attempted to perpetuate conflict due to the benefits they gained not only from their employers but also from illegal activities such as arms sales (Newman, 2004, p.184). This case study therefore highlights the presence of new war features during the Cold War period, with state failure and collapse leading to social disorder and conflicting identity groups competing for resources. This suggests that new wars are in fact not new but have always been present; it is instead the emergence from the Cold War era that simply brought these conflicts to the fore and the expansion of media and communications that has led to the reporting of the internal disputes around the globe. The essay will now turn to the question of whether new wars pose more difficult challenges to postconflict reconstruction, and whether new approaches to state rebuilding after internal civil war are required. Although the essay has argued throughout that new wars are not completely new, it has also noted that some characteristics of contemporary intrastate conflict have evolved from those of the past, and there have been some changed in the forms of conflict. It is for these reasons that the post conflict reconstruction process must make a few adaptations in order to assist a states recovery after civil war. As Newman outlines, evolution and advancement in historical, technological and social-economic terms have meant the nature of conflict has also changed (2004, p.185), and therefore the reconstruction process will face some new challenges. In many post-conflict nations, the levels of crime and human rights abuses remain high as warlords and militia remain at large, making use of t heir illegal economies created through civil war the are weaknesses in the reconstruction process that mean identity politics and the new wars rebuilding programmes are not tackled head on (Kaldor, 2006, p.x). At a basic level, post conflict reconstruction must address a wide and complex range of challenges in states ravaged by internal conflict the prevention of future armed conflict, the rebuilding of effective state institutions, recreation of a social fabric, redressing of human rights abuses and the nursing of a health civil society are all central to the reconstruction process (Call Cook, 2003, p.135). The prevention of further armed conflict is particularly important in the case of new wars as it is essential to discourage warlords, militia and other forces from restarting and perpetuating conflict in order to sustain the resource capture that is common in contemporary warfare. This therefore means the war economy that existed during the conflict must be replaced by an effective state economy that has a monopoly of the nations resources and can prevent resource competition from accumulating and resulting in a fresh break out of conflict. Furthermore, the prevention of future confl ict is not simply a matter of removing arms access and taking guns from the combatants, but it is also the establishment of accountably, transparent, and participatory systems of authority (Call Cook, 2003, p.135). In the aftermath of a new war, it is essential for restructuring forces to quickly create a form of state authority that is accountable to the people and is capable of solving the grievances of those involved in the conflict. Kaldor stresses the importance for reconstruction to primarily involve the restructuring of political authorities and civil society, in the forms of law and order and the mobilisation of political groups (2006, p.145). The integration of all identities is also essential in order to remove the binary them and us dichotomy than can threaten to reignite ethnic or religious differences and disputes. The establishment of law and order requires disarmament, demobilisation, policing or training police forces, arresting of war criminals and the re-establishment of the justice system (Kaldor, 2006, p.146). However, it is not that simple; disarmament through buy-back programmes results in the handing back of average or poor weaponry whilst the high-tech arms are held onto (Kaldor, 2006, p.146). Furthermore, as new wars are essentially a combination of war and criminality, law enforcement must involve both soldiers and police in order to provide adequate security and authority. Infrastructure s uch as basic services, transport and production needs to be restored at both regional and local levels in order to re-establish the economy and reduce the need to humanitarian aid (Kaldor, 2006, p.147). Humanitarian assistance also needs to become more targeted in order to remove war economies and their siphoning of aid, and also to prevent over-reliance on aid that means the economy cannot be rebuilt. For instance, in Somalia, food provisions were high and numerous in an attempt to ensure all of those in need actually received the aid; however, this meant food prices in the state fell, creating an environment where it was no longer economically viable for farmers to produce food (Kaldor, 2006, p.144). Another example of aid problems can be seen in El Salvador; here, and IMF stabilisation programme attempted to provide monetary assistance for the country to reconstruct. However, the strict spending limits of the IMF provisions meant the state could not afford to build a civil police force and enact buy-back schemes for disarmament that was required by the peace programme to help reintegrate combatants back into society (Kaldor, 2006, p.143). In this instance, therefore, humanitarian assistance in post conflict reconstruction needs to become more targeted and utilise local knowledge for it to be effective at rebuilding after a new war. This essay has only touched on the surface of the reconstruction process after a new war, providing a basic outline of state rebuilding. However, it explains the need to adapt certain procedures uses in reconstruction of the state after a new war the need to retarget and develop aid provision, the importance of establishing effective authoritarian institutions to enforce security and peace, and the importance of reconstructing state structures that enable grievances to be addressed, civil society to be rebuilt, war economies removed, and the implementation of policies to prevent future state failure and conflict. To conclude then, this essay points to the need for perspective when approaching new wars and post conflict reconstruction each struggle will need its own unique form of reconstruction, and therefore the post conflict rebuilding process is a case-by-case thesis, with no singular set of reformation practices or factors and the presence or lack of certain factors associated with new wars is down to the unique contexts and mitigations of specific conflicts rather than linear historical changes (Newman, 2004, p.180). There has indeed been a decrease in state vs. state conflict commonly associated with the past, whilst globalisation, decolonisation and the following state building, and the resurgence of identity politics have all suggested a shift from warfare of the past and therefore the need to adjust reconstruction policies (Newman, 2004, p.180), and indeed some changes are required. However, it is perhaps more appropriate to highlight the rise and expansion of the media and communic ations as an explanation for the perceived changes in conflict many of the factors Kaldor outlines in her thesis are not in fact new and have been present in past skirmishes it is simply the prominence and attention these conflicts now receive from the media that has resulted in changes of perceptions and ideas of civil wars (Newman, 2004, p.179). The first section of this essay outlined the basis of Kaldors New Wars argument and the factors attributed to contemporary civil war; following this, the essay provided and agreed with the criticisms of the new wars thesis, highlighting the fact than many of the characteristics of new wars are not as new as Kaldor makes out. Finally, the essay contended that contemporary wars do not provide many more difficult challenges for post conflict reconstruction in comparison to old wars, rather small adjustments must be made in order to account for the rise of globalisation and the modern world.